The Racist History of Medical Research
医学研究的种族歧视历史
原文：Left Voice
https://www.leftvoice.org/the-racist-history-of-medical-research
译文：苦劳网 https://www.coolloud.org.tw/node/94279
译者：陈韦纶
【编按】上月初法国医师建议于非洲进行新冠病毒疫苗的人体试验，此番言论一出，立即
引发世卫组织、反歧视团体与非洲运动员痛批为“种族主义”。一片挞伐声浪之后，两名
发言的医师也随即为失言道歉。
然而，法国医师的意见不仅是“失言”，更反映长久以来将黑人当作研究客体的医疗实验
历史。本文指出：西方医疗实验历史建基于种族主义与殖民压迫，包括对非裔黑人进行不
道德的人体试验，或者利用前殖民地国家管制宽松及贫穷率较高的条件从事临床实验，而
这样的物质条件却又是帝国主义数世纪以来剥削的结果。
Last week, two French doctors suggested that a COVID-19 vaccine trial should
be conducted on people in Africa. On a French TV channel, the head doctor at
a Paris hospital ICU asked, “Should we not do this study in Africa where
there are no masks, no treatment or intensive care[?]” Numerous
organizations and individuals — from politicians and anti-racism groups to
athletes — expressed outrage at the comments. The World Health Organization
(WHO) swiftly condemned the statements, with Director General Dr. Ghebreyesus
saying that Africa “won’t be a testing ground” and that the French doctors
were displaying a “colonial mentality.” The French doctors later offered a
tepid semi-apology over their “clumsily expressed” statements.
上星期(4月1日)，两位法国医师建议新型冠状病毒疫苗应在非洲进行人体测试[注1]。某
间巴黎医院加护病房的主治医师问道：“我们不是应该在缺乏口罩、治疗与重症照顾的非
洲进行研究吗？”这番言论随即引发政治人物、反种族主义团体乃至于非洲运动员等许多
组织与个人的怒火[注2]。世界卫生组织（WHO）很快谴责这番说法[注3]，总干事谭德塞
表示非洲“将不会沦为试验场”，并称法国医师展示了“殖民心态”。法国医师稍后对于
自己“笨拙的言论”表达了没啥诚恳的道歉[注4]。
[注1, 2] Aljazeera: Racism row as French doctors suggest virus vaccine test
in Africa https://tinyurl.com/vmjjpes
[注3] BBC: Coronavirus: Africa will not be testing ground for vaccine, says
WHO https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52192184
[注4] abc News: French doctor apologizes for comments on testing a COVID-19
vaccine in Africa, prompting outrage on social media
https://tinyurl.com/rjlkgwn
But these were not “clumsily expressed” remarks: they are consistent with a
long history of using Black and Brown people as guinea pigs in scientific
research. From the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, capitalist
countries’ quest for raw materials and cheap labor drove their expansion
into overseas territories, dividing the world among themselves. This brutal
conquest and exploitation was justified by racism, and notions of colonized
peoples’ inherent inferiority and disposability — a “colonial mentality,”
in the words of the WHO’s Dr. Ghebreyesus.
但这不只是“笨拙的言论”而已，而是符合长久以来将黑人与中东人当作小白鼠的科学研
究历史。19世纪晚期至20世纪初，资本主义国家为了追求原物料与廉价劳动力[注5]而扩
张海外领土，并自行瓜分了世界[注6]。种族主义，以及“被殖民的人民天生自卑[注7]且
容易被支配”的言论正当化[注8]了残酷的征服与剥削——以世卫组织谭德塞博士的话来
说，就是“殖民心态”。
[注5] Review of African Political Economy: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa:
The Legacy of Walter Rodney https://tinyurl.com/yarceybl
[注6] Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism,
https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/
[注7] Washington Post: American medicine was built on the backs of slaves and
it still affects how doctors treat patients today https://tinyurl.com/y9olbv8o
[注8] Left Voice: Revolution and Black Struggle: Marxism as a Weapon Against
Racism and Capitalism https://tinyurl.com/yaexlnry
As historian Helen Tilley notes, following the establishment of colonies in
the Global South, medical services and infrastructure were developed and went
“hand-in-glove” with scientific research. Colonized people therefore served
as research subjects from the beginning of imperialism. Racist
pseudo-scientific beliefs flourished to rationalize experimentation in
particular, for example about Black people’s higher pain tolerance (a belief
that some continue to endorse). The French doctors’ recent statements thus
reflect long-standing racist beliefs about Black and Brown people’s
expendability, and show that the medical establishment is happy to continue
to exploit them for research.
一如历史家海伦‧提利（Helen Tilley）指出[注9]，随着殖民地在南方国家建立，医疗
服务与基础建设便与科学研究“合作”发展。打从帝国主义之初，被殖民人民便被当成研
究的客体。种族主义的伪科学信仰兴盛，并专门用来合理化实验，例如黑人忍痛度较高（
至今仍有人支持这番说法[注10]）。法国医师近日言论反映了长久以来将黑人与中东人当
作消耗品的种族主义思想，也显示了医疗机构乐于继续为了研究而剥削他们。
[注9] AMA Journal of Ethics: Medicine, Empires, and Ethics in Colonial Africa
https://tinyurl.com/yc3lzz5j
[注10] Pubmed: Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations,
and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27044069
Centuries of imperialist exploitation has also led to material conditions
that have reduced barriers to research and lowered the cost of clinical
trials. Countries in the Global South have laxer regulatory safeguards, and
less red tape than does research in the Global North. These countries
typically lack the resources and local expertise to maintain ethical review
committees, leading to minimal oversight. Compensation for participation is
low, and sometimes nonexistent for illness or death. Labor and infrastructure
costs are significantly lower than in the Global North. Similarly, many of
the countries which are popular locations for clinical trials also have
relatively high rates of illiteracy and poverty, which often increases people
’s willingness to take part in research that presents a unique opportunity
to support their families and receive treatment that would otherwise be out
of reach.
数世纪以来帝国主义剥削所形成的物质条件，减少了研究障碍[注11]并降低临床试验成本
。南方国家的管制规范较宽松，研究方面的繁文缛节也较少。这些国家通常缺乏运作道德
委员会[注12]所需的资源[注13]与本土专家，导致监督几乎不存在。参与试验的补偿[注
14]很少，参与者一旦生病或死亡，甚至无法获得补偿。南方国家的劳动力与基础建设成
本远低于北方国家[注15]。同样地，许多临床试验的热门国家，其文盲比例与贫穷率相对
较高[注16]，经常增加人们参与研究的意愿，因为这是养家餬口的绝佳机会，还能得到原
本无法获得的治疗。
[注11] The Conversation: Ethics vs economics: the cost of outsourcing
clinical trials to developing countries https://tinyurl.com/y9rtmeqy
[注12] Journal of Clinical Research & Bioethics: Issues of Research Ethics in
Developing World https://tinyurl.com/y94vqup3
[注13] Science: African research projects are failing because funding
agencies can’t match donor money https://tinyurl.com/y5b5hccj
[注14] Nature: India shakes up rules on clinical trials
https://tinyurl.com/y8ysquq9
[注15] Pubmed: Ethical Implications of the Globalization of Clinical
Research, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19228627
[注16] The Atlantic: Testing Drugs on the Developing World
https://tinyurl.com/ybfb6abw
Importantly, these conditions are not intrinsic characteristics of
imperialized nations or accidents of geography, nor are they — as some claim
— consequences of developing nations underfunding research. Rather, as
Guyanese academic and anti-imperialist Walter Rodney argued, underdevelopment
is a direct result of capitalist expansion and imperialism. Development in
the Global North came at the expense of colonized nations, and imperialist
extraction siphoned wealth from the Global South while preventing these
nations from developing their economies. This imperialist plunder continues
today, and has created the material conditions that favor research in
formerly colonized countries.
重要的是，这些条件并非被帝国主义统治的国家与生俱来的特征，或是出于地理因素的意
外，也并非如某些人所宣称[注17]，是发展中国家研究经费不足的结果。相反地，一如圭
亚那反帝国主义学者沃尔特‧罗德尼（Walter Rodney）的主张[注18]，发展不足是资本
主义与帝国主义扩张的直接结果。北方国家的发展是以被殖民国家为代价，帝国主义自南
方国家搾取财富，却阻止这些国家发展自己的经济。帝国主义的掠夺持续至今[注19]，并
在前殖民地国家创造有利于研究的物质条件。
[注17] Quartz Africa: Africa’s medical scientists are struggling to get
funding to back their research https://tinyurl.com/y8k9mujk
[注18] Review of African Political Economy: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa:
The Legacy of Walter Rodney https://tinyurl.com/yarceybl
[注19] The Guardian: World is plundering Africa's wealth of 'billions of
dollars a year' https://tinyurl.com/n4jr4pp
Racist Experimentation in the United States
美国的种族主义实验
Black people in particular have been exploited for medical research
throughout U.S. history. In an interview with Time Magazine, medical
historian Harriet Washington points out that we do not appreciate the scope
of research on black Americans, and that there is “no sphere of American
medicine that was not touched by the use in research of African-Americans.”
Perhaps the most well-known case is the Tuskegee Experiment, where 399 black
men in 1932 with syphilis were deceived into thinking they were receiving
treatment for their condition. In reality, the men received placebo
treatments so that researchers could study the disease’s progression. The “
experiment” was halted in 1972, nearly 30 years after an effective treatment
for syphilis was discovered.
美国历史上，黑人特别容易被医疗研究剥削。医疗史学者哈里特‧华盛顿[注20]（
Harriet Washington）指出，我们并未察觉在美国黑人身上进行的研究规模之大，而“美
国医药领域没有任何一块未涉及利用非裔黑人进行研究”。也许最知名的案例是塔斯基吉
梅毒实验[注21]（Tuskegee Experiment）。1932年，399名感染梅毒的黑人男性遭欺骗，
以为自己正在接受治疗。实际上，他们被施以安慰剂（placebo），如此一来研究人员才
能研究梅毒的发展。“实验”直到1972年才终止，当时梅毒有效治疗方法已问世30年。
[注20] Democracy Now: Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical
Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present
https://tinyurl.com/y7g4aqej
[注21] History: Tuskegee Experiment: The Infamous Syphilis Study
https://www.history.com/news/the-infamous-40-year-tuskegee-study
However, as Washington notes, the Tuskegee Experiment is notable for its
recognition by the government, rather than for its brutality. The full list
of horrific experimentation on African Americans is unfathomably long and
ultimately unknowable. Prior to the nineteenth century, Western medicine was
dangerous, and “treatments” included poisons such as arsenic, and forced
bleeding and vomiting. Slaves, seen as particularly expendable during the
slave trade, bore the brunt of the torturous “research” into these
remedies.
然而，一如华盛顿指出，塔斯基吉梅毒实验之所以知名，是因为得到政府认可而非其暴行
。加诸非裔黑人的恐怖实验罄竹难书。19世纪前，西方医学不但危险，其“治疗”更包括
砒霜、强制出血与催吐。奴隶交易期间，奴隶被视为用完即弃的消耗品，在追求治疗的过
程中，他们首当其冲接受这些痛苦的“研究”。
In the early 1800s, when the U.S. imposed a ban on the importation of slaves,
slave-owners had to depend on domestically sustained slavery and became more
concerned with maintaining their slaves’ health. The interests of
slave-owners aligned with doctors who received a steady supply of dehumanized
bodies on which to experiment, and gynecologists in particular benefited from
the pressure for slaves to reproduce. The majority of early gynecological
advances were derived from nonconsensual experiments on black women. J Marion
Sims, the “father of gynecology” — inventor of the vaginal speculum and
treatments for various childbirth complications — forcibly experimented on a
group of black women, performing 40 painful surgeries on one woman alone.
Only in 2018 did New York City remove a statue honoring the doctor.
19世纪初，美国禁止奴隶进口，奴隶主必须仰赖国内供应奴隶，因此更加注重奴隶的健康
。奴隶主的利益与医师一致[注22]，后者获得源源不绝、去人性化的身体进行实验，妇科
医师更是因奴隶再生产的压力而获益。绝大多数妇科的早期进展，源于对黑人妇女的强迫
实验[注23]。“妇科之父”[注24]J.‧马里恩‧西姆斯 （J. Marion Sims）发明了窥阴
器与许多生产并发症的治疗方法，但他强迫一群黑人妇女参与实验，并对一名妇女实施40
次痛苦的手术。纽约市直至2018年才移除他的纪念雕像。
[注22] 同[注7]
[注23] 同[注20]
[注24] The Atlantic: The Surgeon Who Experimented on Slaves
https://tinyurl.com/yxgclsue
As Washington describes in her book Medical Apartheid, African Americans
continued to be subjected to torturous experimentation well into the
twentieth century. This research includes forced sterilization and long-term
contraception, brain surgery on young boys, injections of different viruses
on prisoners, and application of painful dermatological chemicals. Even in
death, African Americans could still be subjected to experimentation and
anatomical dissection.
如同华盛顿在《医疗种族隔离》[注25]（Medical Apartheid）中所叙述，直至20世纪，
非裔美国人都被迫承受痛苦的实验。这些研究包括强迫绝育、长时间避孕、对年轻男孩进
行脑部手术、对囚犯注射各种病毒，以及施加引发痛苦的皮肤科化学物。即便是死亡的非
裔美国人[注26]都被用作实验与身体解剖。
[注25] 同 [注20]
[注26] Time: The Disturbing History of African-Americans and Medical Research
Goes Beyond Henrietta Lacks https://tinyurl.com/ybw7teob
Medical Imperialism
医疗帝国主义
Recognizing the dangers posed by human research, particularly following
revelations about experimentation during World War II, regulations and
guidelines were implemented in the latter half of the twentieth century. In
1964, the World Medical Association adopted the Declaration of Helsinki’s
guidance for ethical medical research on human subjects, a document which has
been revised multiple times to further increase safeguards. (Notably, the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration has removed all references to this document
in their own regulations).
人们认知到人体研究的危险，特别是二战期间的实验被揭露[注27]后，20世纪后半叶，各
种管制与方针开始施行。1964年，世界医学协会（World Medical Association）采用《
赫尔辛基宣言》[注28]对于人体进行医学研究的道德方针。为了进一步增加保护措施，这
份文件历经数次修改。（值得注意的是，美国食品药品监督管理局（FDA）在自己的规范
中，移除所有对于这份文件的引用[注29]。）
[注27] CNN: Unethical experiments' painful contributions to today's medicine
https://tinyurl.com/y9l5wxn6
[注28] WMA DECLARATION OF HELSINKI – ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH
INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS https://tinyurl.com/y7f5boyg
[注29] The battle of Helsinki: Two troublesome paragraphs in the Declaration
of Helsinki are causing a furore over medical research ethics
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1500825/
In spite of these guidelines and the end of overt nonconsensual
experimentation on black Americans, examples abound of unethical research on
Africans and in the Global South. In 1996, Pfizer improperly conducted a
trial for an experimental meningitis antibiotic, leading the company to pay
settlements to the families of the children who died. Around the same time,
numerous HIV trials raised ethical concerns when participants received
placebos instead of supported treatments, and reported adverse effects which
were ignored.
尽管有了这些方针，对于美国黑人公然进行强迫实验也终止了，在南方国家，对非洲人从
事不道德研究的案例仍然很多[注30]。1996年，辉瑞（Pfizer）为了实验中的脑膜炎抗生
素[注31]，进行了一次不当试验，导致该公司必须向死亡孩童的家人支付和解金。同时，
许多HIV试验[注32]也引发了道德关注；在这些试验中，参与者接受安慰剂而非支持性治
疗，不良反应被揭发后[注33]仍被忽略。
[注30] SOMO: Examples of unethical trials
https://www.somo.nl/examples-of-unethical-trials/
[注31] The Guardian: Pfizer pays out to Nigerian families of meningitis drug
trial victims https://tinyurl.com/ycb64v9k
[注32] 同[注16]
[注33] Aljazeera: Medical colonialism in Africa is not new
https://tinyurl.com/ybqh3tuc
Ethically dubious research has continued into the twenty-first century. A BBC
article from 2012 asks, “Have India’s poor become human guinea pigs?”
about revelations that Indians from the bottom of the caste system
participated in research without their knowledge. During the 2014 and 2016
Ebola outbreak, over 250,000 blood samples were drawn from West African
patients who did not give informed consent to participate in research. The
international laboratories who took the samples now refuse to release them or
disclose how many are left. This is just a small sample of unethical research
practices conducted in the Global South by multinational corporations in the
Global North. Considering the vigor with which these corporations guard their
research, there are undoubtedly more cases where misconduct may never come to
light.
直至21世纪，充满道德疑虑的研究仍然存在。2012年，一篇《英国广播公司》（BBC）的
文章[注34]质问“印度穷人已沦为人类小白鼠了？”，揭露了印度种姓制度底层的人民如
何在不知情的情况下参与研究。2014至2016年伊波拉病毒爆发期间，国际规模的实验室在
未获知情同意的情况下，蒐集超过25万名西非病人的血液样本[注35]。采样的实验室如今
拒绝释出样本，或是公开究竟还保留多少。这只是北方国家跨国公司在南方国家从事不道
德研究的小小案例。这些企业致力捍卫自己的研究，想必有更多不端无法被公诸于世。
[注34] BBC: Have India’s poor become human guinea pigs?
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20136654
[注35] The Telegraph: Ebola's lost blood: row over samples flown out of
Africa as 'big pharma' set to cash in https://tinyurl.com/yajjme57
Nationalize Big Pharma
国有化制药大厂
Importantly, people in developing nations often do not reap the rewards of
medical research. The WHO has found that over 19% of children globally do not
receive vaccines for diseases such as measles, largely due to barriers caused
by poverty. The clinical research boom in India only began in 2005 after new
patent laws — a condition for membership to the World Trade Organization
(WTO) — restricted the availability of generic drugs and increased licensing
fees, a victory for multinational drug companies that made many drugs
prohibitively expensive for poorer Indians. Countries which flout patent laws
to provide life-saving medication face the wrath of multinational companies,
the WTO, and politicians. In 1999, South Africa faced fierce opposition for
bypassing patent laws to provide cheap drugs during the AIDS epidemic. As
these cases show, the lives of people in the Global South are necessary
sacrifices to be made at the altar of profit maximization.
重要的是，发展中国家的民众通常无法享受这些医学研究的成果。世卫组织[注36]发现，
全球有超过19%[注37]的孩童无法获得麻疹等疾病的疫苗，大部分是因为贫穷所造成的阻
碍。印度的临床实验在2005年迅速成长[注38]，当时新的专利法[注39]（成为世界贸易组
织会员的条件之一）限制通用药的供应并增加许可费用。这是跨国药品公司的胜利，这些
公司将许多药品订价高昂到印度穷人无法负担的程度。藐视专利法而提供救命药品的国家
则面临跨国公司、世贸组织与政客的怒火。1999年，南非因为在爱滋疫情期间通过提供便
宜药品的专利法而遭遇强烈反对[注40]。这些案例显示为了利润极大化，有必要牺牲南方
国家人民的性命。
[注36] WHO: 1 in 5 children in Africa do not have access to life-saving
vaccines https://tinyurl.com/y9crzxm8
[注37] WHO: Immunization coverage https://tinyurl.com/yxd4nujg
[注38] Lancet: Regulation failing to keep up with India's trials boom
https://tinyurl.com/y9t7rhjk
[注39] NY Times: India Alters Law on Drug Patents https://tinyurl.com/y9weuu58
[注40] Nature: Gore under fire in controversy over South Africa AIDS drug law
https://www.nature.com/articles/21472
Some developing countries, such as India, have tightened regulations in
response to death and disease caused by substandard pharmaceutical research.
In 2014, as part of a clinical trial for an experimental vaccine against
rotavirus — a viral disease responsible for over 3% of deaths in children
under five globally — over 2,000 children in India were injected with a
placebo treatment rather than an alternative vaccine that was already
available. Tellingly, in response to these increased regulations, the head of
the Association of Clinical Research Organizations responded that clinical
trials “can be relocated to more hospitable countries to mitigate the direct
economic damage,” highlighting that concerns lie primarily with economic,
not human, cost.
某些发展中国家，例如印度，用加强管制来回应不符规定的制药研究所造成的死亡与疾病
。2014年，为了实验中的轮状病毒疫苗（全球5岁以下的孩童，有超过3%因此病毒而死亡
）所进行的临床实验，对2千多名印度孩童[注41]施打安慰剂而非既存的替代疫苗。临床
研究协会组织主席回应[注42]日渐严格的管制时表示，临床试验可以“移至较友善的国家
，减轻直接的经济损害”，这番言论凸显经济成本而非人命才是主要考量。
[注41] Huffpost: Unethical Clinical Trials Still Being Conducted in
Developing Countries https://tinyurl.com/ycuye7gg
[注42] Businesswire : ACRO Testifies Before U.S. International Trade
Commission On Effects of India Industrial Policies on Economy
https://tinyurl.com/y6vgy4w6
In a market-driven system for developing medical treatment, where drug and
vaccine trials are primarily conducted by multinational corporations who are
pressured to produce findings and cut costs at every step, unethical research
practices will flourish. Racism and the long history of experimentation in
imperialized countries will ensure that Black and Brown people bear the brunt
of this unethical research. A system that prioritizes profit maximization and
shareholder value will find ways to circumvent regulations and thwart any
revenue-threatening attempts to protect research participants. In spite of
increased regulations in recent decades, we are far from the end: in 2015,
management consulting firm (and capitalism gospel-spreader) McKinsey & Co.
declared Africa a “continent of opportunity for pharma and patients.”
在市场驱动的医疗发展系统中，药物与疫苗试验主要由跨国公司进行，这些公司的每一步
都承受产出成果与削减成本的压力，因此不道德的研究仍然猖獗。种族主义与在被帝国殖
民国家进行实验的悠久历史，将确保黑人与中东人承受不道德研究的结果。将利益最大化
与股东利益置于首位的系统也会找到规避管制的方法，并阻止任何保护研究参与的企图损
害自己的盈利。尽管数十年来逐渐加强相关管制，我们做得仍然不够：2015年，管理顾问
公司（资本主义福音传播者[注43]）麦肯锡公司（McKinsey & Co）即宣布[注44]，非洲
对于“药厂与病人而言，是充满机会的大陆。”
[注43] Current Affairs: McKinsey & Company: Capital’s Willing Executioners
https://tinyurl.com/y3p2tro3
[注44] McKinsey : Africa: A continent of opportunity for pharma and patients
https://tinyurl.com/yd8u88s8
The road to medical discovery is paved with the lives of countless Black and
Brown people from formerly colonized nations. The COVID-19 pandemic requires
action on a global scale and, as the French doctors’ remarks show,
corporations and governments in the Global North could easily use this crisis
to continue exploiting these individuals. Pharmaceutical companies and
medical research should be put under the democratic control of workers,
scientists, and doctors, free of the profit motive that encourages
exploitation of research subjects. We must also enable countries in the
Global South to develop their own research infrastructure to protect local
participants, and demand an end to the imperialist extraction and
under-development that has plagued the Global South for centuries. This
expropriation would allow both science and the means of production to be put
in the service of all of humanity, and make it possible to conduct research
into the many diseases that get neglected by Western companies. Medical
research should be ethically conducted and used for the common good,
including for people in the Global South who are more likely to be victims of
research than beneficiaries of its findings.
医学发现的道路上，布满了无数前殖民地国家中黑人与中东人的生命。新冠病毒疫情需要
全球规模的行动，而法国医师的言论显示，北方国家的企业与政府将可轻易利用这场危机
继续剥削南方国家的人民。制药公司与医学研究应该受到工人、科学家与医师的民主控制
[注45]，而非鼓励剥削研究对象的利润趋力。我们也必须确保南方国家发展自己的研究基
础建设[注46]来保护当地参与者，要求终止折磨南方国家长达数世纪的帝国主义搾取与低
度发展。这样的征用将让科学与生产方式为了所有人而服务，并且从事许多被西方企业忽
略[注47]的疾病研究。医学研究的进行应该符合道德并且为了所有的福祉，包括南方国家
的人民，他们往往是研究的牺牲者而非其成果的受益者。
[注45] Left Voice: Nationalize All Healthcare Now!
https://tinyurl.com/ybgkjydg
[注46] 同 [注12]
[注47] Huffpost: Why The World Ignores Diseases Of Poverty
https://tinyurl.com/yad3e6c6